Recreational Marijuana
More than half of U.S. adults have tried marijuana, despite it being an illegal drug under federal law. Recreational marijuana, also known as adult-use marijuana, was first legalized in Colorado and Washington in 2012. [43]
Terminology
Pot. Weed. Ganja. Mary Jane. There are more than a thousand slang terms in the English language to refer to marijuana. A 1943 article in TIME magazine called it muggles, mooter, and bambalacha, and referred to marijuana cigarettes as goof-butts and giggle-smokes. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, use of the word “marijuana” (also written as “marihuana” in older references) came to popularity in the United States in the 1930s as an alternative to the more familiar terms “cannabis” and “hemp.” [88][89][90]
Cannabis, the scientific name for marijuana, is a plant that has three species (or strains): cannabis indica, cannabis sativa, and the less common cannabis ruderalis. Marijuana and hemp are both cannabis plants, but marijuana contains higher levels of THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), the primary psychoactive ingredient that causes people to get high. Hemp can be cultivated for industrial uses such as rope and burlap fabric, or for a low-THC, non-psychoactive, medicinal product. The words “cannabis” and “marijuana” are frequently used interchangeably, as are the words “recreational” and “adult-use.”[33][123][245]
Marijuana legalization refers to the practice of allowing and regulating the production, distribution, sale, and possession of cannabis so that marijuana use within the established rules is no longer a crime. There are different models of legalization, including allowing people to grow their own marijuana, nonprofit co-ops, and for-profit commercialization with retail sales. [33][143][150]
Early History of Cannabis in the United States
While references to marijuana as a popular medicine are found in Chinese writings dating back to 2900 BC, the marijuana plant made its arrival in North America in 1611 thanks to the Jamestown settlers. Early colonists were required to grow hemp. George Washington and Thomas Jefferson grew hemp for clothing, rope, and fishing nets in the 1770s. By the 1800s, doctors were using cannabis extracts for various ailments, and marijuana was listed in the United States Pharmacopeia as a treatment for opiate addiction, leprosy, cholera, and more. In the mid-1800s, hemp was the third-largest crop in the United States, behind cotton and tobacco. [99][121][177][178][182][246]
Trend towards Outlawing Marijuana, Early 1900s
At the start of the 20th century, drugs were largely unregulated: beverages including Coca-Cola contained cocaine, heroin was sold as an over-the-counter medicine, and cannabis was readily available in tinctures (concentrated liquid extracts). The 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act, which specifically mentioned cannabis indica, kicked off drug regulation in the United States by requiring ingredient labeling in drugs and food. The 1914 Harrison Narcotics Act, which regulated and taxed opiates and cocaine, was soon followed by the 1919 prohibition of alcohol.[189][190][191][192]
Mexican immigrants entered the United States in record numbers following the 1910 Mexican Revolution. They reportedly introduced Americans to smoking marijuana for recreational purposes. Around the same time, sailors and West Indian immigrants brought marijuana from the Caribbean into North America via New Orleans. In the 1920s and 1930s, recreational cannabis use became associated with the jazz, and the famous trumpet player Louis Armstrong was an early advocate for marijuana. [179][187][188]
The rise of the word “marijuana” (from the Spanish “marihuana”) as a replacement for the then-familiar terms cannabis and hemp is often attributed to prohibitionists, including Harry Anslinger, the first commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics. Anslinger worked to associate cannabis with demeaning or racist stereotypes about Mexican immigrants and other minorities. [155][163][169][175][179][184][193][198]
Following the 1933 repeal of alcohol prohibition, Anslinger focused on fighting marijuana, which had already been banned in 29 states by 1931. He tried to turn public opinion against cannabis with inflammatory rhetoric: “There are 100,000 total marijuana smokers in the U.S., and most are Negroes, Hispanics, Filipinos and entertainers. Their Satanic music, jazz and swing result from marijuana use. This marijuana causes white women to seek sexual relations with Negroes, entertainers and any others.” His efforts were aided by a 1936 anti-marijuana propaganda film, Reefer Madness, as well as by newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst, who famously printed articles designed to foster fear of the drug. [169][194][195][196][197][198]
The 1937 Marihuana Tax Act effectively outlawed cannabis use in the United States by adding strict regulations and prohibitive taxes that made marijuana too expensive to buy or sell legally. It became a federal crime to possess marijuana, including hemp, without having the required tax stamps. Importers and manufacturers of marijuana were required to pay an annual tax of $24 (more than $500 in 2025 dollars). Transfers of marijuana to non-registered people were subject to a tax of up to $100 per ounce (more than $2,200 in 2025 dollars). Legal transfers of marijuana involved special order forms and strict record keeping. Violations of the Act were subject to fines of up to $2,000 ($44,000 in 2025 dollars) and five years in prison. In October 1937, Samuel Caldwell became the first marijuana seller convicted under US federal law and was sentenced to four years of hard labor at Leavenworth Penitentiary. [178][194][199][200][201][202][203][204][205]
Marijuana, 1938 - the 1960s
In 1938, New York City Mayor Fiorella La Guardia directed the New York Academy of Medicine to research marijuana. Their report became one of the first comprehensive reviews of the drug’s impact. The 1944 La Guardia report concluded that “The practice of smoking marihuana does not lead to addiction…. Marihuana is not the determining factor in the commission of major crimes.…The publicity concerning the catastrophic effects of marihuana smoking in New York City is unfounded.” The findings infuriated Commissioner Anslinger, who denounced the report as a “government-printed invitation to youth and adults—above all teenagers—to go ahead and smoke all the reefers they feel like.” The report did not alter federal marijuana policy. [206][207][208][209][210]
Marijuana remained popular with musicians, artists, writers, and others throughout the 1940s and 1950s. However, marijuana use became more widespread among upper-middle class white Americans and common on college campuses in the 1960s alongside the rise of the hippie counterculture and Vietnam War protests. Efforts to re-legalize marijuana grew stronger. The 1965 arrest of Timothy Leary, a Harvard psychologist who experimented with hallucinogens and became a counterculture icon, led to the Marihuana Tax Act being overruled by the Supreme Court in 1969. The court agreed with Leary’s argument that the law violated his fifth amendment right against self-incrimination because he wouldn’t have been able to follow the law’s registration requirements without admitting to breaking state marijuana bans, thus incriminating himself. [33][177][194][209][211]
President Nixon and the 1970 Controlled Substances Act
In 1970, President Nixon signed the bill that makes marijuana illegal under federal law to this day. As a party to the 1961 Single Convention Treaty, the United States was required to limit marijuana use “exclusively to medical and scientific purposes.” That obligation was implemented with the 1970 Controlled Substance Act (CSA). Under the CSA, drugs were put into one of five categories based on their medical use and potential for abuse. Marijuana was placed in the most restrictive category, Schedule I, which was designated for “drugs with no currently accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse,” along with heroin and LSD. Drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine were placed in the less restrictive Schedule II. [139][177][209][212][213]
Marijuana’s placement in Schedule I was supposed to be temporary pending a federal review by the newly formed National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Policy (more commonly known as the Shafer Commission). The commission’s 1972 report concluded that “neither the marihuana user nor the drug itself can be said to constitute a danger to public safety” and recommended that marijuana possession for personal use no longer be considered a criminal offense. President Nixon’s response was, “[R]eading it did not change my mind. I oppose the legalization of marijuana.” Regardless of the commission’s recommendation, marijuana was left in Schedule I and remains there today. [169][214][224][225][226]
NORML, Holland, and Decriminalization
In the same year that the CSA was enacted (1970), the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) was founded to advocate for the end of marijuana prohibition. Between 1973 and 1981, the organization successfully fought to get minor marijuana offenses decriminalized in 11 states and lower penalties for marijuana possession in other states. The organization, headquartered in D.C., is still in operation. [209][217]
A policy of decriminalization was adopted in the Netherlands in 1976 for what the country deemed “soft drugs,” which included cannabis. Under the Dutch Opium Act, possession of less than five grams of marijuana is presumed to be for personal use and is therefore not prosecuted. The law also allows for coffee shops where people can buy and use cannabis. Decriminalization of marijuana means people don’t get arrested for possessing small amounts of marijuana but may be required to pay a civil fine rather than facing criminal charges. This is a step towards loosening marijuana prohibition, but it is not considered to be legalization. Some marijuana legalization opponents advocate for decriminalization instead. [216][218][219]
Marijuana at the End of the 20th Century
In the 1980s, a rise in parent groups concerned about the increase in teen drug use coincided with the election of President Ronald Reagan, who declared a “war on drugs” in 1982, echoing the phrase popularized by Nixon. First Lady Nancy Reagan spearheaded the “Just Say No” campaign aimed at convincing kids not to use drugs and seeking to overturn lenient drug laws. Parent lobbying groups such as the National Federation of Parents for Drug-Free Youth, now known as National Family Partnership, established a presence in D.C., to advocate for anti-drug legislation. Throughout the 1980s, federal and state criminal penalties for marijuana became stricter and mandatory-minimum sentences were established.[169][177][220][221][222][223]
Marijuana arrests increased dramatically in the 1990s, more than doubling between 1990 and 2002, from 327,000 to 697,000 annually. In New York City, marijuana arrests jumped 882 percent in that period. A report from the Sentencing Project stated, “Our analysis indicates that the ‘war on drugs’ in the 1990s was, essentially, a ‘war on marijuana.’” At the same time, public opinion was shifting in favor of medical marijuana. In 1996, California became the first state to legalize marijuana for medical purposes when voters passed Proposition 215. By the end of 2000, eight states had legalized medical marijuana. By 2017, 29 states and Washington, D.C., had legalized the drug for medical use. [227]
Recreational Marijuana Legalization at the State-Level
Although a 2010 California proposition to legalize adult-use marijuana failed, measures to legalize recreational marijuana were on the ballots in three states two years later, in November 2012. While Oregon voters turned down the measure, Colorado and Washington became the first two U.S. states to legalize adult-use marijuana. [228][229][230][231][232]
Support for legalizing recreational marijuana increased as more people, including many who had never tried marijuana, believed that marijuana use was not as dangerous as the government reported and not a gateway to using harder drugs. People were also becoming unhappy with the sheer cost of enforcing marijuana laws and the growing prison populations, especially among minority populations. Plus, more people were exposed to marijuana and “out-in-the-open” marijuana users thanks to liberalized marijuana policies in medical marijuana states. Younger generations were increasingly more likely to support legalization. [180][215]
By 2025, D.C. and 24 states had legalized recreational marijuana. For more on the state laws, see State-by-State Recreational Marijuana Laws.
Federal Response to State Legalization
In a 2013 communication from President Obama’s Justice Department known as the Cole memo, Deputy Attorney General James M. Cole stated that as long as states had good regulations, then the federal government would hold off on challenging marijuana legalization. As a result, marijuana retail stores opened in Colorado on January 1, 2014, allowing adults age 21 and older to purchase cannabis that is taxed and regulated under state law. Washington’s marijuana shops opened on July 8, 2014. [209][233][234]
The election of President Donald Trump in 2016 and his appointment of Jeff Sessions as U.S. Attorney General in 2017 raised new questions about whether the federal government would crack down on states that were legalizing adult-use marijuana. On January 4, 2018, Sessions issued a memo that undid the hands-off policy enacted by the Obama Administration and instructed federal prosecutors to determine for themselves when to prosecute marijuana activities. [176][181]
On June 7, 2018, Senators Elizabeth Warren (D-MA) and Cory Gardner (R-CO) introduced the Strengthening the Tenth Amendment through Entrusting States (STATES) Act, which they said “ensures that each State has the right to determine for itself the best approach to marijuana within its borders.” Asked about the legislation, President Trump said, “I support Senator Gardner. I know exactly what he’s doing. We’re looking at it. But I probably will end up supporting that, yes.” The bill did not advance. [247][248]
President Trump signed the Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 (known as the Farm Bill) into law on December 20, 2018. This law legalized industrial hemp that contains less than 0.3 percent THC by removing it from the Controlled Substances Act. Cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) remain federally illegal to include in food or health products without FDA approval, even if they were derived from hemp.[253]
On December 4, 2020, the US House of Representatives passed a marijuana decriminalization bill (228-164) that would remove marijuana from the Controlled Substances Act and add a 5 percent tax on marijuana to help people most affected by marijuana criminalization and to fund community and small business grants. Though the bill did not pass the Republican-controlled Senate, it was the first time either chamber has passed such an act. The legislation was led by Representative Jerry Nadler (D-NY) with Senator and Vice-President-elect Kamala Harris (D-CA). [257]
In a largely partisan vote, the US House of Representatives voted 220 to 204 to decriminalize marijuana on April 1, 2022. Tom McClintock (R-CA), Brian Mast (R-FL), and Matt Gaetz (R-FL) crossed party lines to support the bill, while Henry Cuellar (D-TX) and Chris Pappas (D-NH) voted against decriminalization. If passed by the Senate, the bill would “prevent federal agencies from denying federal workers security clearances for cannabis use, and will allow the Veterans’ Administration to recommend medical marijuana to veterans living with posttraumatic stress disorder, plus gains revenue by authorizing a sales tax on marijuana sales” and “expunge … the record of people convicted of non-violent cannabis offenses.” However, neither the House bill nor a similar bill in the Senate garnered enough Republican votes to be passed. [267]
On October 6, 2022, President Joe Biden announced he would pardon thousands of people with federal and D.C. marijuana simple possession convictions and review marijuana’s federal drug scheduling. In a Twitter thread on @potus and video on @whitehouse, Biden stated: “Sending people to jail for possessing marijuana has upended too many lives—for conduct that is legal in many states. That’s before you address the clear racial disparities around prosecution and conviction. Today, we begin to right these wrongs. I’d also like to note that as federal and state regulations change, we still need important limitations on trafficking, marketing, and underage sales of marijuana. As I’ve said before, no one should be in jail just for using or possessing marijuana. Today, I’m taking steps to end our failed approach.” The White House Twitter account added, “Additionally, @POTUS asked @SecBecerra and the Attorney General to initiate the process of reviewing how marijuana is scheduled under federal law. Marijuana is currently classified at the same level as heroin – and above fentanyl.”[268][269]
A letter dated August 29, 2023, from the Department of Health and Human Services to Anne Milgram, Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), was leaked to Bloomberg News. The letter called for rescheduling marijuana as a Schedule III drug under the Controlled Substances Act. The DEA confirmed receipt of the letter to Bloomberg News and indicated that the department would now conduct its own review based on the recommendation. Marijuana is currently a Schedule I drug (grouped with heroin, LSD, and ecstasy). Schedule III drugs (like ketamine) may be obtained with a prescription. [275]
International Laws
Only a handful of countries have fully legalized recreational marijuana: Canada (2018), Germany(2024), Luxembourg (2023), Malta (2021), and Uruguay (2013). [280]
In a few other countries, including but not limited to Estonia, Georgia, Mexico, Netherlands, Slovenia, South Africa, and Spain, adult-use marijuana is decriminalized, meaning possession and consumption of marijuana are legal but selling or buying it is illegal. Some countries with decriminalized marijuana allow cultivation, others do not. [259][260][262][263][280]
Pros and Cons at a Glance
| PROS | CONS |
|---|---|
| Pro 1: Legalizing recreational marijuana results in a safely regulated drug. Read More. | Con 1: Legalizing recreational marijuana comes with serious social costs. Read More. |
| Pro 2: Legalizing recreational marijuana ends the costly and racist enforcement of marijuana laws and cripples the illegal marijuana market. Read More. | Con 2: Legalizing recreational marijuana dramatically increases growth of the plant, which is bad for the environment. Read More. |
| Pro 3: Legalizing recreational marijuana boosts the economy by creating new tax revenue and jobs. Read More. | Con 3: Legalizing recreational marijuana creates a “Big Marijuana” industry, while boosting illegal marijuana sales and use. Read More. |
| Pro 4: Most Americans agree recreational marijuana should be legal. Read More. | Con 4: Health experts do not believe recreational marijuana should be legal, because marijuana isn’t safe. Read More. |
Pro Arguments
(Go to Con Arguments)Pro 1: Legalizing recreational marijuana results in a safely regulated drug.
People buying marijuana on the street have no way of knowing if what they’re ingesting is covered with mold, fungus, pesticides, or other harmful substances. Once marijuana is legalized, the government is able to enforce laboratory testing and regulations to ensure that marijuana is free of toxins. For example, Washington law requires health warnings, quality assurance, labeling for the concentration of THC, and other important regulations for consumers.[9] [10][11]
Further, legalization comes with regulations to prevent kids’ exposure to marijuana, including child-resistant packaging, such as the regulations implemented in Colorado, Washington, Oregon, and Alaska. Legalization allows the government to set age restrictions on buyers and to license and regulate the entire supply chain of marijuana, including growers, distributors, retailers, and testing laboratories. California regulations include limitations on the serving sizes for edible marijuana products, seed-to-sale testing and tracking, and 24-hour video surveillance at retail stores. [12][13][14]
Due in part to these regulations, “the rates of marijuana use by young people are falling despite the fact more US states are legalizing or decriminalizing marijuana use and the number of adults using the drug has increased.” Marijuana use among 8th graders in Washington state decreased following legalization in 2012, from 9.8 percent to 7.3 percent in 2014/2016, according to a December 2018 report from RAND. A study from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) found that past-year marijuana use decreased by 17 percent, from 15.8 percent in 2002 to 13.1 percent in 2014, among US kids ages 12 to 17. Colorado teens between ages 12 and 17 reported a nearly 12 percent drop in marijuana use just two years after adult use was legalized, according to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. The Marijuana Policy Project, an organization that leads marijuana legalization campaigns, said, “Study after study has confirmed that marijuana policy reforms do not cause rates of youth marijuana use to increase…. The most in-depth state surveys suggest modest decreases in rates of youth marijuana use in Colorado and Washington.” [37][38][39][40][41][42][254]
Additionally, traffic deaths dropped 11 percent on average in states that legalized medical marijuana. In fact, studies show that drivers under the influence of marijuana tend to be more cautious and take fewer risks than drunk drivers, such as making fewer lane changes and reducing speed. A fact sheet about marijuana’s effects on drivers posted on the National Highway Traffic and Safety Administration website stated that “Some drivers may actually be able to improve performance for brief periods by overcompensating for self-perceived impairment.” Benjamin Hansen, an economics professor at the University of Oregon at Eugene who studied traffic deaths post-medical marijuana legalization, concludes, “Public safety doesn’t decrease with increased access to marijuana, rather it improves.” [25][65][66][74]
The fact of the matter is that marijuana is less harmful than alcohol and tobacco, which are already legal. Alcohol and tobacco are known to cause cancer, heart failure, liver damage, and more. According to the CDC, six people die from alcohol poisoning every day and 88,000 people die annually due to excessive alcohol use in the United States. There are no recorded cases of death from marijuana overdose.[46][47][168]
Three to four times as many Americans are dependent on alcohol as on marijuana. A study in the Lancet ranking the harmfulness of drugs put alcohol first as the most harmful, tobacco as sixth, and cannabis eighth. A national poll found that people view tobacco as a greater threat to health than marijuana by a margin of four to one (76 percent vs. 18 percent), and 72 percent of people surveyed saw alcohol use as more dangerous than marijuana use. “In several respects, even sugar poses more of a threat to our nation’s health than pot,” said David L. Nathan, a clinical psychiatrist and president of Doctors for Cannabis Regulation. [33][43][44][48]
Pro 2: Legalizing recreational marijuana ends the costly and racist enforcement of marijuana laws and cripples the illegal marijuana market.
Arresting people for marijuana possession costs the United States between $1.19 billion and $6.03 billion annually. These costs include police, judicial, legal, and corrections expenses. Incarcerating marijuana offenders costs the United States an estimated $600 million per year. Harvard economist Jeffrey Miron has estimated that marijuana legalization would save between $7.7 billion and $13.7 billion annually. [21][24][60][61][63]
Instead of arresting people for marijuana, police officers could focus on serious crimes including rape, assault, and homicide. For example, marijuana legalization in Washington significantly freed up law enforcement resources; marijuana possession arrests dropped from 5,531 the year before legalization to 120 the year after. Howard Wooldridge, a former police detective from Michigan who co-founded LEAP (Law Enforcement Against Prohibition), said, “Marijuana prohibition is a horrible waste of good police time. Every hour spent looking for pot reduces public safety.”[62][64][169]
Further, statistics show a significant racial disparity in the enforcement of marijuana laws: even though white and black people use marijuana at roughly the same rate, a black person in the United States is 3.73 times more likely to be arrested for marijuana possession on average. In Iowa, the state with the highest inequity, black people are 8.3 times more likely to be arrested for marijuana possession than white people. In New York City, 15.8 percent of marijuana possession cases involving white people result in conviction, compared to 32.3 percent involving black people and 30 percent involving Hispanics. Marijuana possession convictions can impact people’s ability to get public housing, financial aid for school, loans, and jobs. Margaret Dooley-Sammuli, Criminal Justice and Drug Policy director for the ACLU of California, stated, “Racial disparities in marijuana enforcement are widespread and longstanding.” Legalizing marijuana would help correct the disparity. [21][24][26][27][28]
Legalizing recreational marijuana would also subvert the illegal marijuana market. Data from the U.S. Border Patrol shows that marijuana seizures have decreased by millions of pounds and are at their lowest levels in over a decade, indicating that legal domestic production is decreasing demand for marijuana smuggled in from Mexico. A Mexican cannabis farmer told NPR, “If the US continues to legalize pot, they’ll run us into the ground.” Legalization in Colorado and Washington alone has cost Mexican drug cartels an estimated $2.7 billion in profits. [17][18][19][21]
Finally, studies show that medical marijuana dispensaries decreased crime in their neighborhoods because of an increased security presence and more people walking around the area. Research also indicates that people drink less and alcohol sales drop in places where marijuana is legalized, which in turn decreases crime because the amount of crime and violence caused by alcohol use is ten times higher than by marijuana use; alcohol use is also a factor in around 40 percent of violent crimes, including domestic violence and assault. According to FBI crime statistics, violent crime in Washington decreased in the years after legalization (295.6 violent offenses reported per 100,000 Washington residents in 2011 vs. 284.4 violent offenses per 100,000 people in 2015). [30][31][32][33][35][36]
Taylor West, former deputy director for the National Cannabis Industry Association, said, “We’re not seeing any increase in crime rates through marijuana — we’re seeing lower crime rates, and there are good rational reasons for that: We’re really beginning to cripple the criminal market, which is where violence actually occurs.” [71]
Pro 3: Legalizing recreational marijuana boosts the economy by creating new tax revenue and jobs.
For every $1.00 spent in the marijuana industry, between $2.13 and $2.40 in economic activity is generated for other industries, including but not limited to tourism, banking, real estate, construction, and transportation. The marijuana industry hit $24.6 billion in revenue in 2021, exceeding the market for energy drinks, milk, and orange juice. [1][2][3][7][278]
In Colorado, marijuana brings in three times more tax revenue than alcohol. The state raised $78 million in the first fiscal year after starting retail sales and $129 million the second fiscal year. Washington collected a total of $220 million in tax revenues in its second fiscal year of sales. [15][52][53]
The legal marijuana industry generated $7.2 billion in economic activity in 2016, and added millions of dollars in federal taxes paid by cannabis businesses. A study on adult-use marijuana in Nevada projected $7.5 billion in economic activity over the first seven years of legalization in that state, including $1.7 billion in labor income. A study by the University of California Agricultural Issues Center estimated that the legal marijuana market in California could generate $5 billion annually. [4][5][6][20]
In addition to creating tax revenue, legalizing marijuana creates jobs. As of January 2022, the legal marijuana industry had created 428,059 American jobs, with 107,000 new jobs in 2021 alone, according to the Leafly Jobs Report. The report noted that jobs increased 33 percent from 2020 to 2021, or approximately 280 new jobs per day. 2021 was the fifth consecutive years jobs increased by more than 27 percent. [278]
An economic impact estimate from the Marijuana Policy Group forecast the creation of more than 130,000 jobs in California following legalization. Within a few years of legalization, approximately 18,000 additional full-time jobs were created in Colorado annually, both in the actual marijuana business as well as in related fields such as security and real estate. U.S. Representative Earl Blumenauer (D-OR) stated that the cannabis industry in the United States “is expected to produce nearly 300,000 jobs by 2020 and grow to $24 billion by 2025.” [15][20][59]
Further, all of the tax revenue in legal marijuana states provide funding to the police, drug treatment and mental health centers, and housing programs, along with school programs such as anti-bullying campaigns, youth mentoring, and public school grants. “The impact is really felt at the local level. Some counties have done 20 years of infrastructure work in just one year’s time. They’ve provided lunch for kids who need it,” says Brian Vicente, partner at Vicente Sederberg LLC, a law firm specializing in the marijuana industry.[40][50][73]
In Colorado, $40 million of marijuana tax revenue went to public school construction, while $105 million went to housing programs, mental health programs in jails, and health programs in middle schools in 2016-2017. [51][52]
Pro 4: Most Americans agree recreational marijuana should be legal.
A 2023 Gallup poll found 70 percent support for legalizing marijuana among American adults, up from 12 percent in 1969, the first year the polling company asked about marijuana. The poll first surpassed 50 percent support in 2011. [249][276][281]
According to Gallup, “the transformation in public attitudes about marijuana over the past half-century has mirrored the liberalization of public attitudes about gay rights and the same-sex-marriage movement.” While Democrats (73 percent) have been more likely to back legalization historically, 45 percent of Republicans overall agree with legalization. However, 62 percent of younger Republicans (18 to 29) support legalization for recreational use. [67][276]
NORML, which lobbies for marijuana legalization, states, “Most Americans agree with NORML that responsible marijuana consumers should not be treated like criminals. Eight in ten Americans support the medical use of marijuana, and two-thirds of adults favor legalizing marijuana for adults.” As evidence, 40 states took some action to relax their drug laws (such as decriminalizing or lowering penalties for possession) between 2009 and 2013. And, as of 2025, D.C. and 24 states had legalized recreational marijuana, while D.C. and 39 states had legalized medical marijuana. [69][70][277]
Pro Quotes
Peggy Flanagan, Lieutenant Governor of Minnesota (D)
It is past time to safely legalize adult cannabis use … prohibition doesn’t work….
Legalizing adult-use cannabis is about our economic future. It’s about expanding our economy and creating jobs across the state. It’s about health, allowing us to regulate the industry and to ensure that products are safe and educating the public about the facts of cannabis use. It’s about public safety, allowing law enforcement to focus on violent crime and expunging the records of people who are convicted of non-violent offenses involving cannabis to give them a second chance. It’s about recognizing the way that we have been doing things isn’t working, and we can change. [282]
USA Today Editorial Board
“The strongest argument for Congress to end federal marijuana prohibition finds its roots in the far reaching harms and disparities that stem from its criminalization. The nation’s misguided war on drugs will continue inflicting harm until cannabis is decriminalized.
Nonetheless, decriminalization alone is not enough. Given the risks associated with marijuana, the nation needs the federal government to shift its posture from prohibition to regulation. To make that shift effectively, Congress needs to take a hands-on approach.
That requires legalization. [283]
Jody Murphy, Democratic candidate for Governor of West Virginia
We need to legalize the growth, cultivation, sale, possession and use of cannabis – both medicinal and recreational… We can generate millions of dollars in much-needed state revenue that people will willingly pay for. This is a huge untapped revenue stream …
We need to get past the moral objection to marijuana. We to need understand and separate the fact that legalization of marijuana is not the same as individuals condoning it.
Legalization is not moral acceptance.
This is a tax, a revenue stream willingly paid by folks, and will reap benefits for our working class folks and their families and our economy. [284]
Governor Andrew Cuomo of New York
For decades, communities of color were disproportionately affected by the unequal enforcement of marijuana laws.
Last year we righted that injustice when we decriminalized possession.
This year, let’s work with our neighbors New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania to coordinate a safe and fair system, and let’s legalize adult use of marijuana. [285]
Con Arguments
(Go to Pro Arguments)Con 1: Legalizing recreational marijuana comes with serious social costs.
Marijuana use harms more than just the person using the drug. The related social costs of marijuana use include paying for increased emergency room visits, medical care, and addiction treatment for the uninsured; more victims of drugged driving accidents; and workplace accidents. Legalizing marijuana would put one more harmful substance in our society that costs more than the revenue it generates. [78][102][129][130][133]
After retail marijuana stores opened in Colorado, emergency room (ER) visits related to marijuana shot up nearly 30 percent, and hospitalizations related to marijuana rose 200 percent.“The emergency department has seen increased visits for primary care needs, breathing problems related to inhalation of marijuana, including asthma, bronchitis, upper respiratory tract infections, as well as psychiatric needs, accidental or intentional overdoses and, unfortunately, increased pediatric patients with issues related to marijuana,” said Karen Randall, an ER physician in Colorado. Further, people end up in the ER with anxiety attacks or psychotic-like symptoms from eating sweets infused with more marijuana than they were expecting—or, in some cases, not expecting at all. People are used to the idea that a candy bar is a single serving size, but a candy bar with marijuana could have four or more times the recommended dose of THC, depending on the state’s regulations. As a result, poison-control marijuana exposure cases for kids ages 9 and under increased more than five-fold in Colorado after legalization. [12][78][100][102][104][105][161][171][255]
According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, as many as four million Americans meet the diagnostic criteria for a marijuana use disorder, such as abuse, dependence, or addiction. Dr. Drew Pinsky, internist and addiction medicine specialist, said, “I’ve been treating cannabis addiction for 20 years. When people are addicted to cannabis, cocaine and alcohol the drug they have the most difficult time giving up is the cannabis.”[93]
A study in the Journal of Drug Issues found that the number of American daily marijuana users has risen dramatically since 2002, and now 68 percent of users report daily or near-daily use. Kevin Sabet, director of Smart Approaches to Marijuana, wrote, “The scientific verdict is that marijuana can be addictive and dangerous…. Many baby boomers have a hard time understanding this simply because today’s marijuana can be so much stronger than the marijuana of the past.” [93][95][96][97][98][160]
Marijuana-related traffic deaths rose 62 percent following the legalization of marijuana in Colorado. Jim Leal, former Chief of Police of Newark, California, said of legalizing marijuana, “You are commercializing a product that is just going to put more impaired drivers on the road, worsening a problem that we already have. What officers are seeing with THC levels being very high is they are seeing impairment being far worse than they have ever seen in the past.” The Highway Loss Data Institute found an increased crash risk in legal marijuana states and said collision claims in Colorado, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington increased 6 percent as compared to states that don’t have legal marijuana. A meta-study by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NAS) concluded that “Cannabis use prior to driving increases the risk of being involved in a motor vehicle accident.”[78][83] [84][85][158][252][255]
Workplace incidents involving employees under the influence of marijuana increased from 6 percent to 20 percent the year after legalization in Colorado. Employees who screened positive for marijuana use had 55 percent more industrial accidents, 85 percent more injuries, and absenteeism rates 75 percent higher than those who tested negative, according to a study done on postal workers. Paul L. Bittner, partner and vice chair of the Labor and Employment Group at Ice Miller law firm, said, “You not only lose productivity, but the bigger concern for employers is potential liability if there’s an accident and someone gets hurt or killed.” [122][124][125][126][134]
Con 2: Legalizing recreational marijuana dramatically increases growth of the plant, which is bad for the environment.
According to an environmental review, “Results show that both indoor and outdoor cannabis growing is water-intensive. The high water demand leads to water pollution and diversion, which could negatively affect the ecosystem. Studies found out that cannabis plants emit a significant amount of biogenic volatile organic compounds, which could cause indoor air quality issues. Indoor cannabis cultivation is energy-consuming, mainly due to heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and lighting. Energy consumption leads to greenhouse gas emissions. Cannabis cultivation could directly contribute to soil erosion. Meanwhile, cannabis plants have the ability to absorb and store heavy metals.”[276]
Additionally, marijuana cultivation results in deforestation, habitat destruction, and river diversion. [140][142]
Cannabis plants require nearly double the amount of water needed to grow grapes or tomatoes. Rosamond Naylor, senior fellow at the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment, said, “Taking water directly from rivers and streams in the summer [to grow marijuana] not only reduces the water available for agriculture but also threatens wildlife species.… Regardless of the legal status of marijuana, the way we are currently managing its impacts on water and wildlife in California just doesn’t work.”[142][144][145]
Because marijuana remains an illegal drug at the federal level, “the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has not approved any pesticides for use on the plant.” This lack of guidance has resulted in some growers using “banned pesticides and blood thinners/rat poisons against crop-eating mammals” and not properly disposing of chemicals and waste. Further, growing marijuana results in a number of waste streams, including waste similar to food manufacturers, agricultural waste, mercury-containing waste (as a result of UV light use), toxic and flammable waste from THC extraction chemicals. Uneducated growers, or those without state-supported guidelines may be destroying their local environments. [277]
Legal indoor growing also requires a lot of electricity for lighting, heating, and ventilation. These “heavy-load electric devices” include UV lights that are powered on 16 or more hours daily, irrigation systems, HVAC (air conditioning and heating) systems, and air filter systems. In just three years after legalization, Denver growers doubled their electric use, accounting for almost 5 percent of the 2.8 million city residents’ power use. [277]
Derek Smith, executive director of the non-profit Resource Innovation Institute, explains, “The reality is this industry has been in the shadows for a long time [and thus, many newly legal growers are as well] … using, in some cases, the same technology that was used in basements in the black market days just blown up to 50,000 square feet—very hot lights, very inefficient HVAC, very little ventilation.” [278]
Not only do old and new technologies seriously strain an already struggling power grid, but the energy consumption from growing marijuana also produces an amount of greenhouse gas emissions equal to that of 3.3 million cars each year. As a Mother Jones article jabs, “Dude, your cannabis habit has an epic carbon footprint.” The article notes, “Studying more than 1,000 locations across the United States, researchers from Colorado State University calculated the median emissions of growing one kilogram of cannabis to be about 3,600 kilograms of CO2 equivalent emissions. The amount varies from roughly 2,300 to 5,200 kilograms of emissions per kilogram grown depending on location. To put that in perspective, a kilogram of tomatoes grown in a British Columbia [Canada] greenhouse heated with natural gas emits roughly two kilograms.”[141][279]
Con 3: Legalizing recreational marijuana creates a “Big Marijuana” industry, while boosting illegal marijuana sales and use.
“Big Marijuana” is already using similar tactics to “Big Tobacco,” which marketed cigarettes using ads that appealed to kids, including the Joe Camel cartoon character. Likewise, marijuana food products are frequently colorful, sweet, or branded with cartoons to attract children. Marijuana is available in kid-friendly forms such as gummy bears and lollipops, and products sometimes resemble familiar brands, such as “Buddahfinger” or “KeefKat” in wrappers that look like a Butterfinger or KitKat candy bar. The vaping industry has followed this same kid-friendly marketing strategy, with candy-flavored vapes. [103][129][134][149][167]
Mark A. R. Kleiman, a drug policy expert, said, “[I]f you’re in the [for-profit] cannabis business, casual users aren’t much use to you while heavy users are your best customers, accounting for the bulk of your sales … the commercial interest demands maximizing [use].” Rosalie Liccardo Pacula, senior economist at RAND Corporation, agrees, noting that heavy marijuana users account for the “vast majority of the total amount sold and/or consumed.” [147][148]
The percentage of 12- to 17-year-olds using marijuana is higher in every legal marijuana state than the national average. For example, 16.21 percent of Colorado teens and 18.86 percent of teens in Alaska reported marijuana use in the past year, compared to an average of 12.29 percent for the United States overall in 2015-2016. Colorado past-month teen marijuana use jumped 20 percent in the two-year average after marijuana was legalized for adults. [39][78]
Further, creating a commercialized, legal market has actually enhanced opportunities for the illegal market, because prices charged by state-licensed sellers can easily be undercut by cartels. A drug dealer told Vice News, “Right now with the way the tax structure is in Washington, the black market is going to thrive.” [134][135][173]
In Colorado, a sharp increase in marijuana-related charges filed under the state’s Organized Crime Control Act coincided with the legalization of marijuana, indicating a rise in organized crime. The Colorado Attorney General’s office stated that legalization “has inadvertently helped fuel the business of Mexican drug cartels … cartels are now trading drugs like heroin for marijuana, and the trade has since opened the door to drug and human trafficking.” Local officials said that Mexican cartels were growing marijuana under the cover of legal operations in Colorado and using that to fuel the black market in other states. [102][134][174]
Additionally three United Nations treaties set worldwide drug controls. As a party to the treaties, the United States has agreed to limit the use of marijuana “exclusively to medical and scientific purposes.” The move by some U.S. states to legalize adult-use marijuana has upset the U.N. monitoring organization, which stated that legalization “cannot be reconciled with the legal obligation” to uphold the Single Convention treaty. Legalizing marijuana puts the United States in a position of weakness when we need to hold other nations accountable to legal agreements. [136][137][138][139]
Con 4: Health experts do not believe recreational marijuana should be legal, because marijuana isn’t safe.
Smoking marijuana can damage lung tissues and cause respiratory problems; secondhand marijuana smoke is also dangerous. Research shows that smoking one marijuana joint is as damaging to the lungs as five tobacco cigarettes. Marijuana may contain five times as much carbon monoxide concentration and three times as much tar as tobacco. There is a higher risk of heart attacks and strokes in the hours immediately after smoking cannabis. And vaping is also dangerous and “likely leads to enhanced ingestion of toxic ammonia known to result in neurobehavioral impairment.” Ammonia ingested while vaping can result in lung irritation, nervous system effects, and asthma attacks.[114][115][116][118][119][120][134][162][164]
Some of the public health associations that oppose legalizing marijuana for recreational use include the American Medical Association (AMA), the American Society of Addiction Medicine, the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and the American Academy of Pediatrics. [94][151][152][153][154]
While the AMA acknowledges marijuana’s potential for medicinal benefits, it “continues to oppose legalization of cannabis. Legalization of cannabis for adult use is associated with increased traffic fatalities, exposures reported to poison control (including infants and children), emergency department visits, and cannabis-related hospitalizations.” [275]
Con Quotes
John Hagen, attorney and writer
If you have a ‘SCIENCE IS REAL’ sign in your yard and you’re in favor of legalizing recreational marijuana, you should do some reading. The evidence emphatically disfavors legalization….
The underlying menace is potency. Today’s marijuana is not the Woodstock weed of bygone years (1 percent to 3 percent THC). Genetic engineering has brought plant potency above 17 percent, and concentrates (in edibles, vapes and other products) can approach 99 percent. [286]
Joe Carter, Senior writer for The Gospel Coalition
[Many] have an outdated and erroneous view of the harms of marijuana. The belief that the drug is nonaddictive, relatively harmless, and no serious threat to individuals or society has been the rationale that’s led to the legalization of marijuana in over a dozen states….
Some churchgoers will still support legalization even knowing how it damages both individuals and society. But I believe many Christians who are concerned with loving their neighbor (Mark 12:31) will change their opinion based on the evidence. If we truly “seek the welfare of the city where [God has sent us] into exile” (Jer. 29:7), we’ll continue to oppose the legalization—and normalization—of this dangerous drug. [287]
Peter Bensinger, former administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration
Marijuana isn’t harmless. Nor is it legal under federal law, and for good reason. It contains more than 460 different chemicals and, as the editorial board points out, it’s four to five times more powerful than the marijuana of the 1970s, ’80s or ’90s.
Extensive scientific research has documented serious harm to brain development for teenage regular users, major consequences for pregnant and nursing mothers and significant impairment for drivers and others performing sensitive tasks. Colorado, the first state to legalize marijuana, leads the nation in use by 12-to-17-year-olds. Meanwhile, the gangs and drug dealers are cheering because their sales have skyrocketed, selling to minors and others at lower prices than dispensaries can offer.
Policy makers need to examine the consequences of legalization: changes in teenage use, traffic accidents and fatalities, emergency room and treatment admissions, homelessness and more. [288]
Teresa Haley, State President of the NAACP Illinois
We believe strongly that past and current practices of the tobacco, alcohol and marijuana industries prove that these industries target, exploit and victimize communities of color. At a time when we are all working to bring more opportunity and advancement to our communities, legalizing today’s high-potency marijuana will work counter to those efforts.
The vast majority of legal pot businesses are owned by wealthy, white investors. Commercial marijuana is NOT social justice. It’s about Big Tobacco, Pharma and Wall Street investors preying on people of color and hooking them on a dangerous product for years to come. It’s about putting profits ahead of people…
Today’s high-THC content marijuana, including liquids, oils and edible forms pose significant mental and physical health risks, especially for our young people …
We have stood steadfast in our opposition to commercial marijuana in Michigan and New Jersey, and we urge you to do the same. [289]
State-by-State Recreational Marijuana Laws
Please consult the state for the most recent information. All state marijuana laws include the minimum age of 21 for use.
| State | How Passed | Law | Possession Limits: Usable Marijuana | Possession Limits: Plants | Possession Limits: Hash & Concentrates |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alaska | Ballot Measure 2 Approved November 4, 2014 by 53 percent of voters | Alaska Statute Chapter 17.38: The Regulation of Marijuana Effective: February 24, 2015 | up to 1 oz | up to 6 plants with no more than 3 mature plants | Possession of hash and concentrates is illegal. Possession of up to 3 g is a misdemeanor, more is a felony. |
| Arizona | Smart and Safe Arizona Act (Prop 207) Approved November 3, 2020 by 59.95 percent of voters | Smart and Safe Arizona Act Effective: November 30, 2020; sales March 2021 | up to 1 oz | Up to 6 plants per person; up to 12 plants for a single residence with more than one 21+ resident | up to 5 grams |
| California | Proposition 64: The Adult Use Marijuana Act Approved November 9, 2016 by 57 percent of voters | Control, Regulate and Tax Adult Use of Marijuana Act Effective: November 9, 2016 (revised penalties); January 1, 2018 (retail sales); 2023 (restrictions to be lifted on large-scale corporations) | up to 1 oz | up to 6 plants, including the harvest from those 6 plants | up to 8 g (more than 8 g is a misdemeanor) |
| Colorado | Amendment 64 Approved November 6, 2012 by 55 percent of voters | Colorado Constitution: Article 18, section 16 Effective: December 10, 2012 (revised penalties) January 1, 2014 (commercial sales) | up to 1 oz | up to 6 plants with no more than 3 mature plants | up to 1 oz |
| Connecticut | SB 1201 signed by Governor Ned Lamont on June 22, 2021 | SB 1201 Effective: July 1, 2021 (revised penalties); May 2022 (commercial sales); July 2023 (growing plants) | up to 1.5 oz; up to 5oz in a locked container | up to 6 plants with no more than 3 mature plants | up to 7.5 g (up to 750 mg of THC); 25 g (up to 2,500 mg of THC) in a locked container |
| Delaware | HB1 & HB2 No action taken by Governor John Carney, allowing bills to become law | Amendments to Titles 4, 11, 16, & 30 of the Delaware Code Effective: April 23, 2023 | up to 1 oz | possessing or growing plants remains illegal until the state’s Marijuana Mart is opened on August 1, 2025 | 12 grams or less of concentrated cannabis, or cannabis products containing 750 milligrams or less of delta-9-THC |
| D.C. | Initiative 71 (65 percent) Approved November 4, 2014 by 64.87 percent of voters | Marijuana Legalization and Regulation Act of 2015 (retail sales are not allowed) Effective: February 26, 2015 | up to 2 oz | up to 6 plants per person with no more than 3 mature plants; up to 12 plants (no more than 6 mature) for a single residence with more than one 21+ resident | Possession of hash and concentrates is illegal and punishable with 180 days in jail and a $1,000 fine. |
| Illinois | HB 1438 Governor JB Pritzker signed the bill on June 25, 2019 | Cannabis Regulation and Tax Act Effective: January 1, 2020 | up to 1 oz (30 g) for residents and 500 milligrams of THC contained in a cannabis-infused product for state residents (15 g/250 mg non-residents) | none | up to 5 g (2.5 g non-residents) |
| Maine | Question 1 Approved December 17, 2016 by 50.26 percent of voters | The Marijuana Legalization Act Effective: January 30, 2017 (grow and possess) | up to 2.5 oz | up to 3 flowering plants, 12 immature plants, unlimited seedlings, and all marijuana produced from the plants | up to 5 g |
| Maryland | Maryland Question 4 (Marijuana Legalization Amendment) Approved November 8, 2022 HB 837 Effective: On or after July 1, 2023 | Chapter 45, Article XX – Cannabis | 1.5 oz | up to two cannabis plants in their homes for their own personal use | 12 grams of cannabis concentrates |
| Massachusetts | Question 4 Approved November 8, 2016 by 53.66 percent of voters | Regulation and Taxation of Marijuana Act Effective: December 15, 2016 | up to 1 oz | up to 6 plants; no single residence may exceed 12 plants | up to 5 g. Possession of hash is illegal though decriminalized for possession of up to 1 oz. |
| Michigan | Proposal 1 Approved November 6, 2018 by 56 percent of voters | Effective: January 2020 | 2.5 oz; up to 10 ounces at home, but amounts over 2.5 ounces must be kept in locked containers | up to 12 plants | 15 grams of marijuana may be in the form of marijuana concentrate |
| Minnesota | HF100 Signed by Governor Tim Walz on May 30, 2023 | Session Law Chapter: 63 Effective: August 1, 2023 | up to 2 oz in public; up to 2 pounds at home | up to eight cannabis plants, with no more than four being mature | up to 800 mg of THC in edibles; up to 8 grams of concentrate |
| Missouri | Amendment 3 Approved November 8, 2022 | Article XIV, Sections 1 & 2 Effective: by February 7, 2023 | up to 3 oz | up to six flowering plants, six immature plants, and six plants under 14 inches for personal use | n/a |
| Montana | Initiative I-190 Approved November 3, 2020 by 56.89 percent of voters CI-118: Allow for a Legal Age for Marijuana Approved November 3, 2020 by 57.82 percent of voters | Effective: January 1, 2021 | up to 1 oz | up to 4 mature plants and up to 4 seedlings | up to 8 grams |
| Nevada | Question 2 Approved November 8, 2016 by 54.47 percent of voters | Nevada Revised Statutes, Chapter 453D – Regulation and Taxation of Marijuana Effective: January 1, 2017 | up to 1 oz | up to 6 plants; no single residence may exceed 12 plants | up to 3.5 g |
| New Jersey | New Jersey Marijuana Legalization Amendment Approved November 3, 2020 by 66.88 percent of voters | Amendment to Article IV, Section VII of the New Jersey Constitution Effective: January 1, 2021 | up to 1 oz | n/a | n/a |
| New Mexico | House Bill 2 signed by Governor Michelle Lujan Grisham on April 12, 2021 | Cannabis Regulation Act Effective: June 29, 2021; commercial sales began in April 2022 | up to 2 oz | up to 6 plants per person with no more than 12 per household | Up to 16 grams of concentrated marijuana, and 800 milligrams of edible cannabis |
| New York | Senate Bill S854A Passed Senate and Assembly, and signed into law by Governor Cuomo on March 31, 2021 | Marihuana Regulation and Taxation Act Effective: March 31, 2021 | up to 3 oz | up to 12 plants with no more than 6 mature plants and 6 immature per residence | up to 24 g concentrated cannabis |
| Ohio | Issue 2 Approved November 7, 2023 by 57 percent of voters | Chapter 3780 Effective: December 7, 2023 | up to 2.5 oz | up to 6 plants per individual; up to 12 plants per household collectively | up to 15 g of concentrates |
| Oregon | Measure 91 Approved November 4, 2014 by 56.11 percent of voters | Oregon Revised Statutes Chapter 475B – Cannabis Regulation: Recreational Use of Cannabis Effective: March 29, 2016 | up to 1 oz in public; up to 8 oz homegrown at home | up to 4 plants per residence | up to 16 oz solid infused at home; up to 72 oz liquid infused at home; up to 1 oz extract at home |
| Rhode Island | Rhode Island Cannabis Act Signed by Governor Dan McKee on May 25, 2022 | Rhode Island Cannabis Act Effective: May 25, 2022 | up to 1 oz in public; up to 10 oz at home | up to 3 mature plants and 3 immature plants per residence | up to 5 g concentrate |
| Vermont | Legislative Bill H.511 Approved January 22, 2018 | An Act Related to Eliminating Penalties for Possession of Limited Amounts of Marijuana by Adults 21 Years of Age or Older Effective: July 1, 2018 | up to 1 oz | up to 6 plants per household (no more than 2 mature), and all marijuana produced from the plants | 5 g |
| Virginia | Senate Bill 1406 House Bill 2312 Governor’s amendments to law approved April 7, 2021 by House and Senate | Effective: July 1, 2021 (possession and growing plants); commercial sales TBD On March 1, 2022, the Virginia House of Delegates subcommittee killed a bill that would have accelerated the commercial sales legalization, enforcement measures, regulation, and tax revenue of adult-use marijuana in Virginia. The bill was originally slated to be passed by 2024. Sales and purchases of adult-use marijuana remain illegal in the state until legislation is passed. | up to 1 oz | Up to 4 plants | n/a |
| Washington | Initiative 502 Approved November 6, 2012 by 55.7 percent of voters | Revisions to the Uniform Controlled Substances Act, chapter 69.50 Effective: December 6, 2012 | up to 1 oz | Plants are illegal. Any amount is a felony. | up to 16 oz marijuana-infused product in solid form; up to 72 oz marijuana-infused product in liquid form; up to 7 g marijuana concentrate |
Marijuana Studies
Below, organized by publication date, are select medical studies on the effects of marijuana..
June 18, 2024 - Cannabis-Related Healthcare Encounters Increased
The study found that “rates of health care encounters with cannabis-related disorders increased from 2017 through 2022, irrespective of state or territory cannabis legal status.” However,
Rates were greatest in states or territories with both adult and medical use legalization . . . followed by states or territories with medical legalization . . . and states or territories where cannabis use was illegal. . . . We noted the greatest increasing trends in nonemergency department (ED) outpatient settings across all legalization categories. We observed higher average annual increases among beneficiaries enrolled in MA [Medicare Advantage] than those enrolled in FFS [Fee-for-Service].
Silvia Perez-Vilar, et al., “State Cannabis Legalization and Trends in Cannabis-Related Disorders in US Older Adults, 2017 to 2022” (June 18, 2024), JAMA Network Open, jamanetwork.com
June 17, 2025 - Cannabis Use Associated with Major Adverse Cadiovascular Events
This systematic review and meta-analysis uses an original approach centred on real-world data. The findings reveal positive associations between cannabis use and MACE [major adverse cardiovascular events]. These findings should encourage investigating cannabis use in all patients presenting with serious cardiovascular disorders.
Wilhelm Storck, “Cardiovascular Risk Associated with the Use of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis” (June 17, 2025), Heart, heart.bmj.com
June 2, 2025 - Use Among Older Adults Increased
The study found that past-month use among adults 65 and older rose from under 1 percent in 2005 to 4.2 percent in 2018.
People with chronic diseases, particularly multiple chronic diseases, also had an increased prevalence in use. The substantial increased prevalence in states with legalized medical cannabis highlights the importance of structural educational support for patients and clinicians in those states. The use of cannabis products, especially with psychoactive properties, may complicate chronic disease management among older adults. As previously reported, prevalence of tobacco and excess alcohol use continues to be high among older adults who use cannabis.
Benjamin H. Han, et al., “Trends in Past-Month Cannabis Use Among Older Adults” (June 2, 2025), JAMA Internal Medicine, jamanetwork.com
June 1, 2025 - Cannabis Hospitalizations Associated with Increased Risk of New Dementia Diagnosis
Individuals with cannabis use severe enough to require hospital-based care were at increased risk of a new dementia diagnosis compared with those with all-cause hospital-based care or the general population. These findings have important implications considering increasing cannabis use among older adults.
Daniel T Myran, et al., “Risk of Dementia in Individuals With Emergency Department Visits or Hospitalizations Due to Cannabis” (June 1, 2025), JAMA neurology, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
May 28, 2025 - Chronic Cannabis Use Associated With Endothelial Dysfunction
Stanford Medicine defines endothelial dysfunction as
a type of non-obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD) in which there are no heart artery blockages, but the large blood vessels on the heart’s surface constrict (narrow) instead of dilating (opening).
The study found that:
chronic cannabis smoking and THC ingestion were associated with endothelial dysfunction similar to that observed in tobacco smokers, although apparently occurring via distinct mechanisms.
Leila Mohammadi, et al., “Association of Endothelial Dysfunction With Chronic Marijuana Smoking and THC-Edible Use” (May 28, 2025), JAMA Cardiology, jamanetwork.com
Stanford Medicine, “Endothelial Dysfunction” (accessed July 25, 2025), stanfordheathcare.org
May 14, 2025 - Cannabis Use and Cannabis Use Disorder Common Among Older Veterans
The study found that 10 percent of veterans aged 65 to 84 years old had used cannabis in the last 30 days and of those 36 percent had “cannabis use disorder” (CUD), an addiction to and growing tolerance of the drug, which can lead to greater use.
The prevalence of past 30-day cannabis use was close to tobacco use prevalence, and risk factors for cannabis use were similar to those observed in other populations. Frequent and inhaled cannabis use was associated with higher odds of any CUD. Routine health screening for cannabis use in Veterans Health Administration clinical settings is necessary to identify older adults with cannabis use.
Vira Pravosud, et al., “Cannabis Use Among Older Adults” (May 14, 2025), JAMA Network Open, jamanetwork.com
April 10, 2025 - Smoking Remains Most Popular Method of Cannabis Consumption
The CDC study aimed to understand cannabis use patterns in order to better understand related health outcomes.
Among the 15.3 percent of respondents who reported current marijuana use, smoking was the most frequent route (79.4 percent), followed by eating (41.6 percent), vaping (30.3 percent), and dabbing (inhaling heated concentrated cannabis) (14.6 percent). Vaping and dabbing were most prevalent among persons aged 18–24 years.
Zerleen S. Quader, et al., “Routes of Marijuana Use — Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 22 U.S. States and Two Territories, 2022” (April 10, 2025), Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, cdc.gov
February 6, 2025 - Cannabis Use Disorder Hospitalizations Linked to Premature Death
In this cohort study of all residents of Ontario, Canada, individuals with incident hospital-based CUD [cannabis use disorder] care were at markedly increased risk of death compared with the general population. These findings suggest important clinical and policy implications, given global trends toward cannabis legalization and market commercialization accompanied by increasing cannabis use and CUDs.
Daniel T. Myran, et al., “Cannabis Use Disorder Emergency Department Visits and Hospitalizations and 5-Year Mortality” (February 6, 2025), JAMA Network Open, jamanetwork.com
February 4, 2025 - Cannabis Use Disorder Association with Schizophrenia Increased
In this cohort study of individuals aged 14 to 65 years in Ontario, Canada, the proportion of incident cases of schizophrenia associated with CUD almost tripled during a period of substantial liberalization of cannabis policy. Ongoing research is indicated to understand the long-term associations of cannabis policy with the prevalence of psychotic disorders.
Daniel T. Myran, et al., “Changes in Incident Schizophrenia Diagnoses Associated With Cannabis Use Disorder After Cannabis Legalization” (February 4, 2025), JAMA Network Open, jamanetwork.com
January 2025 - Cannabis Use Linked to Arrhythmias
Epidemiological data and multiple studies indicate a significant association between cannabis use and various arrhythmias, particularly atrial fibrillation. The risk is notably higher among younger users and males. Additionally, case reports have linked cannabis use to other arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation, especially in individuals with underlying cardiac abnormalities … Despite some studies suggesting no significant difference in arrhythmia burden between cannabis users and nonusers, the preponderance of evidence supports a correlation between cannabis use and increased arrhythmia risk. Given the rising tetrahydrocannabinol content in cannabis products and the limited data on the long-term cardiovascular effects, this review underscores the need for large-scale prospective studies. Until more comprehensive data are available, it is advisable for patients with channelopathies, structural heart disease, or prior myocardial infarction to avoid cannabis use
Shweta Paulraj, et al., “Arrhythmias and Cannabis Use: A Comprehensive Overview” (January 2025), Heart Rhythm O2, sciencedirect.com
March 9, 2024 - Cannabis Flowers’ THC Content Regularly Mislabeled in Dispensaries
The results of this study indicate that there is a need for more stringent regulations to ensure that product labeling is accurate, as over 70 percent of the evaluated products did not meet the ± 20 percent acceptance criteria. It is noted that out of all samples that were found to be mislabeled (outside of ± 20 percent difference between claimed values and analytical values), only one sample (#13, Table 5) was under labelled, while all others were over labelled. That might be because of the higher economic gain by stating a higher Δ9-THC content. Another possibly reason for the overstated values could be the loss of THC content as a result of storage under unfavorable conditions. That possibly was not considered because all products were analyzed prior to the stated expiration date.
Mona M Geweda, et al., “Evaluation of Dispensaries’ Cannabis Flowers for Accuracy of Labeling of Cannabinoids Content” (March 9, 2024), Journal of Cannabis Research, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
February 28, 2024 - Cannabis Use Associated With Adverse Cardiovascular Outcomes
The study concluded that cannabis use may be a risk factor for both cardiovascular disease and premature cardiovascular disease.
Past 30-day cannabis use was associated with MI [myocardial infarction], stroke, and composite outcomes of CHD (coronary heart disease), MI (myocardial infarction), and stroke among adults 18 to 74 years old, controlling for tobacco smoking status, age, sex, race and ethnicity, body mass index, diabetes, alcohol use, educational attainment, and physical activity. This effect exhibited a dose–response relationship, with more days of use associated with higher risks (Figure). Among adults at risk for premature cardiovascular disease, cannabis use was associated CHD, MI, stroke, and composite of CHD, MI, and stroke when controlling for the same variables.
Abra M. Jeffers, “Association of Cannabis Use With Cardiovascular Outcomes Among US Adults” (February 28, 2024), JAHA: Journal of the American Heart Association, ahajournals.org
August 1, 2023 - Daily Cannabis Smoking Perceived as Safer than Daily Tobacco Smoking
This study found that US adults increasingly perceived daily smoking and secondhand exposure to cannabis smoke as safer than tobacco smoke from 2017 to 2021. Given that these views do not reflect the existing science on cannabis and tobacco smoke, the findings may have important implications for public health and policy as the legalization and use of cannabis increase.
Julia Chambers, et al., “Perceptions of Safety of Daily Cannabis vs Tobacco Smoking and Secondhand Smoke Exposure, 2017-2021” (August 1, 2023), JAMA Network Open, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
May 4, 2023 - Young Men With Cannabis Use Disorder Have Increased Risk of Developing Schizophrenia
Researchers found strong evidence of an association between cannabis use disorder and schizophrenia among men and women, though the association was much stronger among young men. Using statistical models, the study authors estimated that as many as 30 percent of cases of schizophrenia among men aged 21-30 might have been prevented by averting cannabis use disorder.
Carsten Hjorthøj, et al., “Association Between Cannabis Use Disorder and Schizophrenia Stronger in Young Males than in Females” (May 5, 2023), Psychological Medicine, cambridge.org
National Institutes of Health, “Young Men at Highest Risk of Schizophrenia Linked with Cannabis Use Disorder” (May 4, 2023), nih.gov
April 2023 - Cannabis-Related ER Visits Increased
The study found an increase of cannabis-related emergency room (ER) visits among all groups, but especially among adults 65 and older (from 21 per 100,000 visits to 395 per 100,000 visits).
Cannabis-related ED [Emergency Department] visits are increasing among older adults in California and are an adverse effect of cannabis use. Asking about cannabis use and providing education about its use should be a part of routine medical care for older adults.
Benjamin H Han et al., “Trends in Emergency Department Visits Associated with Cannabis Use Among Older Adults in California, 2005–2019” (April 2023), Journal of the American Geriatric Society, pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
May 26, 2021 - Perceived Risk of Regular Cannabis Use Declines Among Older Adults
The study found that the perceived risk of regular cannabis use decreased among adults 65 and older from 52.6 percent to 42.7 percent.
Decreases in perceived risk were detected in particular among those never married (a 32.6 percent decrease), those who binge drink (a 31.3 percent decrease), use tobacco (a 26.8 percent decrease), have kidney disease (a 32.1 percent decrease), asthma (a 31.7 percent decrease), heart disease (a 16.5 percent decrease), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (a 21.5 percent decrease), two or more chronic conditions (a 20.2 percent decrease), and among those reporting past-year emergency department use (a 21.0 percent decrease) (ps<0.05).
Benjamin H. Han, et al., “Decreasing Perceived Risk of Regular Cannabis Use Among Older Adults in the United States from 2015 to 2019” (May 26, 2021), Journal of the American Geriatric Society, pmc.ncbi.nlm.bih.gov
1-minute Survey
After reading this debate, take our quick survey to see how this information affected your opinion of this topic. We appreciate your feedback.
Discussion Questions
- Should recreational marijuana be legal? Why or why not?
- Should medical marijuana be legal? Why or why not?
- Should other recreational drugs be legal? Explain your answer.
Take Action
- Explore the economic benefits of legalizing recreational marijuana at Investopedia.
- Consider the Cato Institute’s analysis of claims made by both sides of the recreational marijuana debate.
- Analyze the con position of emergency physician Dr. Gregory Shangold.
- Consider how you felt about the issue before reading this article. After reading the pros and cons on this topic, has your thinking changed? If so, how? List two to three ways. If your thoughts have not changed, list two to three ways your better understanding of the “other side of the issue” now helps you better argue your position.
- Push for the position and policies you support by writing U.S. senators and representatives.
Sources
- Alan Pyke, "Marijuana’s $2.4 Billion Impact in Colorado Is a Lesson for 5 States Considering Legalization," thinkprogress.org, October 28, 2016
- Troy Antonuci, "The Economics of Legalization," Daily Marijuana Observer, April 6, 2017)
- Lauren Dixon, "How Growing Marijuana Legalization Could Affect the Economy," talenteconomy.io, December 20, 2016
- RCG Economics and Marijuana Policy Group, "Nevada Adult-Use Marijuana: Economic & Fiscal Benefits Analysis," rcg1.com, July 2016
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